Neurodivergent Entrepreneurs: Balancing Between Brilliance and Barriers

Abstract

Neurodivergent (ND) individuals, including people with ADHD, autism, dyslexia, and other neurocognitive profiles, represent a largely underutilized source of entrepreneurial and innovative potential in the workforce. While neurodivergence is often discussed in terms of deficits or accommodation needs, ND individuals may also bring unique cognitive strengths to the workplace, including creativity, pattern recognition, persistence and original problem-solving. Despite growing recognition of these talents, little is known about how ND individuals and organizations can recognize and develop these strengths and translate them into innovative outcomes, while addressing the challenges and support needs that may arise at work.

Recognizing that ND is associated with both pronounced strengths and vulnerabilities – often reflected in ‘spiky’ ability profiles – this project proposes that neurodivergence is neither solely a limitation nor simply a ‘superpower’ but rather a complex interplay of strengths and vulnerabilities whose manifestations depend on the context. The project aims to develop a nuanced understanding of how ND characteristics related to sensory and information processing, emotion regulation, and executive functioning, shape entrepreneurial trajectories and innovative outcomes. It further examines how support strategies and structures can enable ND individuals to leverage their talents in entrepreneurship and innovation. 

This project addresses these issues by developing a novel theoretical framework that explains the relationship between ND profiles, entrepreneurial activities and outcomes, and empirically examining the link between ND and entrepreneurial outcomes in two contexts: among independent entrepreneurs participating in a specialized training program, and among employees who engage in entrepreneurial behavior within a corporate setting.

Keywords

Neurodiversity / neurodivergence, cognitive diversity, entrepreneurship, innovation, self-regulation, ADHD, field experiment

Topic

Approximately 1 in 5 people worldwide is neurodivergent (ND) (Doyle, 2020). Despite the growing interest in neurodiversity in public discourse and corporate practice (Austin and Pisano, 2017), research on this topic remains fragmented across disciplines (Doyle and McDowall, 2022) and focusing mainly on deficits – leaving ND strengths underexplored (Hoogman et al., 2022). Moving away from the traditional ‘deficit’ perspective (or medical model), which emphasizes impairments and limitations that may reduce the ability of ND individuals to perform, scholars have increasingly advocated for a neurodiversity perspective, which frames cognitive differences as natural variations that can offer both strengths and challenges (Sonuga-Barke and Thapar, 2021). Central is the idea that ND individuals often exhibit ‘spiky’ profiles, characterized by pronounced differences between cognitive strengths and weaknesses. In contrast, neurotypical individuals tend to show relatively more uniform or flat ability profiles. 

The neurodiversity perspective is useful for understanding entrepreneurial action by ND individuals, who may possess skills that benefit entrepreneurship, such as sensation seeking and opportunity recognition (Moore et al., 2021; Wiklund et al., 2017). This potential fit is consistent with studies reporting relatively high rates of ADHD and dyslexia among entrepreneurs (Logan, 2009; Verheul et al., 2016), but does not necessarily translate into successful outcomes. The same uneven ability profiles that may generate entrepreneurial strengths may also create important performance challenges. For example, individuals with ADHD may excel at initiating activities but struggle with structuring and sustaining them (Lerner et al., 2018). By adopting a neurodiversity perspective, this project aims to understand these paradoxical effects by examining how strengths and challenges associated with ND interact in shaping entrepreneurial behavior and performance. This balanced approach also helps mitigate the limitations of a narrow ‘business case for diversity’ view, which may create unrealistic expectations, increase pressure on ND individuals; and contribute to tokenization. To summarize, the central research question of this PhD project is: How do the uneven strengths and challenges associated with ND profiles influence entrepreneurial behavior, and under what conditions does ND facilitate or hinder entrepreneurial outcomes? 

This question directs attention to the complex and dual role of ND in entrepreneurship, and provides the basis for a series of interrelated studies examining the mechanisms, boundary conditions and performance implications of ND for entrepreneurial action. 

First, the PhD project contributes to the fragmented and largely deficit-oriented research on neurodiversity by developing a balanced theory of ND entrepreneurship. This theoretical model will be based on an integrative and interdisciplinary literature review that compares strengths and challenges across neurotypes, and examines how uneven (or ‘spiky’) ND profiles shape entrepreneurial activities and outcomes. Second, building on this conceptual framework, this project empirically examines how neurodivergence shapes entrepreneurial performance and wellbeing in different contexts. The first context is that of nascent entrepreneurship: the early-stage process where individuals work on creating a new venture, before that venture is fully established or operational. We develop and test a targeted intervention aimed at supporting individual entrepreneurs with ADHD in coping with early-stage setbacks without undermining progress towards venture goals. The second context is that of intrapreneurship: the process through which (teams of) individuals within established organizations engage in entrepreneurial activities, such as identifying new opportunities, developing new products or services and improving internal processes. In this project, we examine how ‘neurocognitive’ diversity (e.g., diversity in cognitive strengths, thinking styles, problem-solving approaches, sensory processing) shapes team dynamics and entrepreneurial team performance within organizations. Finally, based on these academic insights, we aim to develop evidence-based interventions or support tools that help ND workers to make use of their talents, while effectively dealing with the demands of entrepreneurial work. 

Approach

The PhD project employs different research methods. The project starts with an integrative and interdisciplinary literature review to develop a novel theoretical framework of neurodivergent entrepreneurship. We build this framework on relevant insights from different disciplinary fields (e.g., entrepreneurship/management, neurodiversity/disability studies, psychology, medicine/psychiatry, sociology of work). For the second study, we develop and test the effectiveness of a targeted intervention, aimed at mitigating negative psychological effects of setbacks and supporting the early-stage performance of nascent entrepreneurs with ADHD. The intervention is tested using a randomized field experiment, collecting data from control and treatment groups in several rounds from participants in the Entrepreneurship Unlimited training. In the final study we collaborate with the global Specialisternenetwork to recruit between 40-50 teams that are comparable in terms of size and task characteristics, from one or more organizations, and that vary naturally in ‘neurocognitive’ diversity (assessed via validated questionnaires and manager or peer ratings). We will use Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to identify configurations of ‘neurocognitive’ diversity, team dynamics and entrepreneurial outcomes. Within the overall project, the PhD student will have the opportunity to further develop the design of the studies, including the theoretical framing (e.g., focus and selection of topics and variables), the design and implementation of the empirical studies and their methodological execution, in close collaboration with the supervisory team and external partners.

Required profile

This PhD project offers a great opportunity to contribute to a timely and socially relevant research agenda at the intersection of entrepreneurship, diversity and inclusion, work psychology, and innovation studies. 

Given the interdisciplinary nature of the research, we welcome applications from a variety of backgrounds. The project is especially suited to curious, ambitious and independent researchers with a strong affinity for neurodiversity, who are motivated to conduct high-quality research with real-world impact, and who are eager to help unlock neurodivergent talent in the workplace or in entrepreneurship.  

Candidates applying for this PhD position should have completed (or be close to completing) a master’s degree in management, entrepreneurship, economics, or an adjacent field: including but not limited to psychology, medicine/psychiatry, neuroscience and sociology. Please note that degrees from adjacent areas will be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, taking into account applicants’ motivation to study neurodivergence and their previous research experience. 

Experience with, or a strong interest in learning, methods such as field experiments, experience- sampling methods, and Qualitative Comparative Analysis, is considered an advantage.   

Candidates should have a strong academic record, preferably demonstrated by a high GPA. 

GMAT or GRE scores are preferred (if these are unavailable an additional assignment will be required).

A Research Master’s degree is an advantage. 

Required by ERIM

All application documents required by ERIM can be found here. 

Expected output

The project is expected to generate a series of publications in renowned academic journals, in the field of entrepreneurship / management or adjacent fields, including (but not limited to) human resource management, work and organizational psychology, diversity and inclusion studies, occupational health psychology and career studies. Working papers will be presented at international academic conferences, symposia, and in professional development workshops. 

Beyond academic publications, the project will produce tangible outcomes, including an evidence-based intervention for (nascent) entrepreneurs with ADHD, which may also benefit other (aspiring) entrepreneurs who experience self-regulatory problems in response to setbacks. The project will also generate unique datasets on neurodivergent entrepreneurs and neurocognitive diversity and team outcomes. In collaboration with partners, we will develop evidence-based recommendations on how to support and leverage ‘neurocognitive’ diversity in teams. Finally, the project aims to contribute to a more balanced social narrative around neurodiversity at work by actively involving neurodivergent individuals, practitioners, educators and other key stakeholders throughout the research process.

Cooperation

This project will involve collaborations with different external partners to ensure the feasibility and practical relevance of the research project. We collaborate with the Erasmus Centre for Entrepreneurship (ECE) and specialized career coaches to deliver the Entrepreneurship Unlimited training, which provides the basis for testing the intervention. For studying the role of ‘neurocognitive’ diversity in explaining team dynamics and entrepreneurial outcomes within organizations, we collaborate with Specialisterne, a global non-profit organization promoting employment and inclusion for autistic and other ND individuals. In addition, the research team will benefit from strong connections with renowned scholars in Europe (ESADE, IE University, Technical University of Denmark), Canada (Ivey Business School) and the United States (Whitman School of Management, Syracuse). 

Societal relevance

For the societal impact of this project, we have initiated collaborations with key partners who are directly involved in supporting ND individuals in entrepreneurial and organizational contexts, including the Erasmus Centre for Entrepreneurship (ECE) and Specialisterne. These partnerships ensure that the project is not only scientifically rigorous, but also practically relevant and directly connected to the communities and organizations that can benefit from its findings. For example, the training Entrepreneurship Unlimited will be attended by an estimated 150 participants who receive support in starting up and developing their company, while learning to recognize their unique skills, talents and pitfalls, and how to best manage them in the early stages of starting a company. Through training materials, evidence-based recommendations, workshops, and dissemination via neurodiversity networks (e.g., Neurodiversity Foundation, Stichting Impuls and Woortblind), the project aims to support more inclusive entrepreneurial ecosystems and workplaces. 

Scientific relevance

First, even though the topic of neurodivergence (ND) is receiving growing attention in public discourse and organizational practice, academic research remains fragmented across disciplines and has largely focused on (accommodation of) deficits at work, rather than on work-related strengths of ND profiles. In response, this PhD project aims to develop a balanced theoretical foundation for understanding how ND shapes work-related outcomes. Entrepreneurship provides a relevant context as it may create conditions of either fit or misfit, where ND traits such as opportunity recognition, creativity and initiative may support entrepreneurial activity, while the uncertainty and setbacks inherent in entrepreneurship may amplify self-regulation challenges. 

Second, the project moves beyond theory by developing and testing a context-specific intervention supporting entrepreneurs with ADHD in managing setbacks during early-stage venture creation. While existing research has documented linkages between ADHD and entrepreneurial behavior and career choice, there is limited evidence on how ND entrepreneurs can be supported through interventions embedded in entrepreneurship training. The randomized controlled trial provides rigorous insight into whether and how support improves early-stage entrepreneurial outcomes and wellbeing.  

Finally, the project extends the analysis to the organizational level by investigating how neurocognitive diversity in teams shapes intrapreneurial performance. Whereas diversity research has primarily focused on demographic characteristics, research on cognitive diversity typically examines the variation in knowledge, expertise, and problem-solving approaches, we conceptualize ‘neurocognitive’ diversity as a distinct type of team diversity. Further, the project contributes by empirically examining how this variation in cognitive traits associated with ND conditions interacts with team processes and outcomes. 

Literature references & data sources

Austin, R.D. and G.P. Pisano (2017). Neurodiversity as a competitive advantage, Harvard Business Review 95(3) (May-June 2017), 96-103.

Doyle, N. (2020). Neurodiversity at work: A biopsychosocial model and the impact on working adults, British Medical Bulletin 135(1), 108-125.

Doyle, N. and A. McDowall (2022). Diamond in the rough? An “empty review” of research into

“neurodiversity” and a road map for developing the inclusion agenda, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion 41(3), 352-382.

Hoogman, M., Zhang, F. and C.U. Greven (2022). Editorial: Looking at it from a different angle:

Positive aspects and strengths associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, Frontiers in Psychiatry 13, 1111086.

Lerner, D.A., Hunt, R.A. and I. Verheul (2018). Dueling banjos: Harmony and discord between ADHD and entrepreneurship, Academy of Management Perspectives 32(2), 266-286.

Logan, J. (2009). Dyslexic entrepreneurs: The incidence; their coping strategies and their business skills, Dyslexia 15(4), 328-346.

Moore, C.B., McIntyre, N.H. and S.E. Lanivich (2021). ADHD-related neurodiversity and the entrepreneurial mindset, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 45(1), 64-91.

Sonuga-Barke, E. and A. Thapar (2021). The neurodiversity concept: Is it helpful for clinicians and scientists? The Lancet Psychiatry 8(7), 559-561.

Verheul, I., Rietdijk, W., Block, J., Franken, I., Larsson, H. and R. Thurik (2016). The association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity (ADHD) symptoms and self-employment, European Journal of Epidemiology 31(8), 793-801. 

Wiklund, J., Yu, W., Tucker, R., and L. Marino (2017). ADHD, impulsivity and entrepreneurship, Journal of Business Venturing 32(6), 627-656. 

Employment conditions

ERIM offers fully-funded and salaried PhD positions, which means that accepted PhD candidates become employees (promovendi) of Erasmus University Rotterdam. Salary and benefits are in accordance with the Collective Labour Agreement for Dutch Universities (CAO).

Erasmus University Rotterdam aspires to be an equitable and inclusive community. We nurture an open culture, where everyone is supported to fulfil their full potential. We see inclusivity of talent as the basis of our successes, and the diversity of perspectives and people as a highly valued outcome. EUR provides equal opportunities to all employees and applicants regardless of gender identity or expression, sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, age, neurodiversity, functional impairment, citizenship, or any other aspect which makes them unique. We look forward to welcoming you to our community.

Contact information

For questions regarding the PhD application and selection procedure, please check the Admissions or send us an e-mail via phdadmissions@erim.eur.nl.