Self-driving cars and autonomous vessels, once the stuff of science fiction, now increasingly part of our reality. Several small-scale autonomous maritime craft, including surveillance ships and ferries, are already in operation. But are we truly prepared for this technological shift? Many legal questions remain unanswered, which is precisely why Erasmus School of Law hosted the MASS Rotterdam Conference on 19 and 20 June 2025. We reflect on the two-day event with Lisette Smit-Bennemeer, where academia, industry, and policymakers came together in Rotterdam to chart the course for the future of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS).
The legal and technical challenge of autonomous vessels
Autonomous ships, formally referred to as Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), are drawing increasing attention from both researchers and developers. While the potential benefits are widely acknowledged; greater efficiency, safety, and sustainability, many key legal questions remain open. For instance, what role will the newly adopted EU AI Act play in shaping the development of autonomous ships? How will these changes impact traditional charterparty and carriage contracts? And what about liability and risk management?
Setting a legal and technical course
The conference addressed a broad spectrum of questions. Asli Arda (University of Copenhagen) presented her research into remote pilotage under the Danish Pilotage Act. Using simulated trial runs, her work explores the feasibility of navigating Danish straits without a pilot physically on board. Since these are maritime straits, pilotage cannot be made mandatory, though it is strongly recommended. As research shows that 70% of groundings in these waters involve ships without pilots. Arda explained that shore-based pilotage offers promising potential. The Danish pilotage organisation, DanPilot, will test this with 50 vessels over the next 18 months. According to Arda, although ships will need to implement new technology onboard, the benefits, in terms of safety, efficiency, and working conditions, are substantial. Meanwhile, Jolien Kruit (Van Traa Advocaten) explored the intersection of decarbonisation and unmanned shipping, illustrating how these two developments could reinforce one another in the move toward more sustainable maritime transport.
Unpacking the tech: how does it actually work?
To understand the mechanics behind autonomous shipping, the conference delved into the underlying technologies. Giovanni Selino (University of Amsterdam) explained the operational logic of AI systems and their applications in maritime contexts. Mihael Miso Mudic (University of Zagreb) outlined the implications of the EU AI Act for the shipping industry. Rudy Negenborn (TU Delft and AI Port Center) shed light on the technical challenges of integrating robotics and mathematical modelling. “It was fascinating to see how law and technology are increasingly interdependent,” said Smit-Bennemeer. “But the presentations also raised pressing questions among the audience about which legal elements need to be embedded in these systems.”
Navigating risk: the human factor remains central
Managing risk in autonomous navigation was another key theme. Dr Marius Amouzou presented the IMO’s draft regulatory framework for MASS, a code expected to enter into force by 2032, which stipulates that a responsible person must always be designated. Both Amouzou and Grant Hunter (BIMCO) stressed that human oversight will continue to play a central role in contractual arrangements.
Mariah Kurtinaitis Joukes (DNV) emphasised that certification of autonomous systems depends not only on technical reliability but also on procedural and organisational soundness. “In principle, a ship’s actions must remain verifiable by human actors. Organisational and governance structures will therefore be decisive in determining the success of autonomous operations,” she noted.
Legal frameworks in transition
Frank Stevens discussed the relevance of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs), which provide navigational guidance to prevent maritime accidents. He examined how these rules, designed for human captains, might be translated into autonomous systems.
From the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, Goon Scheres outlined the regulatory challenges ahead, including updates to the Inland Waterways Police Regulations (BPR) and the Manning Act (Wet Bemanning Zeevaart, WBZ). Stevens argued that COLREGs are no longer a technical barrier to innovation. Scheres added that minimum manning requirements have been relaxed, and as of 1 July 2025, the WBZ will allow small seagoing vessels to sail unmanned for experimental purposes, provided there is demonstrable technological innovation. However, under current law, the captain may not legally disembark the vessel. Jeroen Weyn (Nautical Commission Antwerp) concluded with insights from practice, focusing on the challenges of navigation, human intuition, and AI-driven decision-making in unmanned shipping.
Looking ahead
The MASS Rotterdam Conference offered a comprehensive overview of both the current state and the future direction of autonomous shipping. It was an inspiring gathering of legal, technical, and policy perspectives, fostering much-needed dialogue and collaboration.
“It was fantastic to bring together shipbuilders, regulators, legal experts, and engineers for two days to discuss the legal future of autonomous vessels,” reflected Smit-Bennemeer. “Significant progress has been made, particularly for smaller vessels under 24 metres operating at sea. But continuous collaboration is crucial if we are to ensure that autonomous transport of goods and people, both inland and at sea, becomes more efficient, safe, and sustainable.” Frank Stevens, Associate Professor of Commercial Law at Erasmus School of Law and initiator of the MASS Conference, will take a leading role in these developments as the newly appointed chair of the international MASS working group under the Comité Maritime International (CMI).
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